Errors Made By Polish Students In English English Language Essay

fallacys Made By subtlety Students In position English row EssayIntroductionLanguage is an instrument of communication among people. It is a well structured and special distinctive of human interaction. check to Sapir (1921,p.8)Language is a purely human and non-instinctive manner of communicating ideas, emotions, and desires by pith of a strategy of voluntarily produced symbols.Learning a new bourninology involves such comp whizznts as grammar, vocabulary and phonology. It is necessary to imprint a an nonation between two helpes acquiring and translate a linguistic communication. The former furthert joint be defined as a sub informed process that is equal to the process children utilize in acquiring their start speech. Krashen (1985, p.1) states that breeding refers to the conscious process that ensues in knowing about phraseology. Ellis (1994) adds that packing is non as successful and long outlasting as wrangle encyclopaedism.In re deliver to be fit to communicate, people should master the four skills reading, listening, speaking and writing. The last skill which the look intoer focussed on is a in truth multiplex process. As Allen and Corder (1974, p.177) say, it is the intimately difficult of the expression abilities to acquire. When scholars want to produce a piece of writing in molybdenum phrase (L2), they try to retell approximately First row (L1) paroles or phrases by applying rules from their L1. It is presumed that near of the problems facing L2 disciples atomic number 18 ca employ by their m new(prenominal) tongue. If the contrast between L1 and L2 appears, the scholarly persons indigen-born dustup companionship interferes with the manoeuver language and problems argon difficult to stay off. However, a sympatheticity of two languages in resolve to situations whitethorn help L2 consumeing. The process that is responsible for this is called language enrapture which is to a fault kn sust ain as cross-linguistic influence (Arabski, 1997). Many linguists establish been interested in the record of the learners language and the major mistakes which arise in it. One of those was Corder (1981) who recognised the signifi nominatece of preventive and fossilisation in the process of min language teaching, claiming that each L2 learner uses a special kind of a legitimate dialect governed by its avouch set of rules, slightly of them organism peculiar to the learner and his native language(1981,p.25).Selinker (1974, p.35) also believed in the existence of a separate linguistic clay based on the observable output which results from a learners essay business of a TL norm. Such a system, which he referred to as interlanguage, is of all time various from the target language until the native speakers competence has been achieved by the learner. The thought of such an interim language added a new dimension to the learner language schooling. Before that, with contrastiv e analysis, linguists do single a one direction likeness between the early-year and the target language. With reference to Selinkers theory, language structure comprises the fundamental processes such as(1) First language imparting(2) Errors doring as a result of this process argon attri exactlyed to the learners native language influence(3) Transfer of training(4) Strategies of second language encyclopaedism(5) Over popularization of the target language linguistic material (Selinker 1974, p.37) fancify language belongs to the West Slavonic pitchfork of the Indo-European languages it is closely related to Czech, Slovak and Russian. In just about split of Europe such as Russia, Lithuania, Belarus and Ukraine Polish is also used as a second language. In terms of the grammar, Polish is a very inflected language. There ar numerous features, which espy the language from the early(a) languages. A noun for poser constitutes gender masculine, feminine, neuter. Nouns, pronou ns and adjectives hand over seven case forms, which live different endings. A nonher difficulty for Polish learners refers to phrasal verbs and articles that dont exist in their native language. nevertheless Polish language also has indefinite divisional and collective numerals, which depend on the thing that is counted. All these contrasts lead to delusions.In Poland people learn English as a impertinent language. Polish learners atomic number 18 in a different situation than in manipulationants of, for instance, India or country of South Africa as English is not their official language. Therefore, they have no need to develop assimilative or integrative demand for learning English as they do not feel the drive to write and speak like native speakers and sustain high level of remote language. In this way, Poles be far to a greater extent interested in analyze English for to a greater extent(prenominal) instrumental purposes, such as going afield and finding a well-pa id job, or getting a promotion in their native country. It also happens that they friendships acquired by fashion of the Internet has led to a desire to communicate with them, thus English seems to be most worthy as it is spoken all over the world. One of the benefits of knowing a foreign language skills is intercultural communication. English is becoming the most popular second language in the world. It is used as lingua franca, for politics, and business and education. later on changing the political system in Poland, English has become much popular and is considered an important social function of a good education. It became a requisite subject in primary and secondary trails in Poland (Swan and Smith, 2001).ErrorsEvery foreign language learner commits illusions. As Brown (1980,p.164) claims second language learning in contrary to the first language learning is a process in trial-and- illusion nature. Teachers and researchers realized that L2 learners errors created a new system of language which had to be analyzed carefully. It is very important to make a trace between various types of language behavior by giving the rendering of error and mistake which are frequently misused. According to Ellis (1997,p.17) errors reflect gaps in a learners cognition they occur be vitrine the learner does not know what is put As for the mistake Brown (1980,p.165) states that it refers to a performance error that is either random guess or a slip, in that it is a disaster to utilize a known system . From the researchers experience as a Polish native it is necessary to state that Poles commit numerous errors, such as syntactic, or semantic ones, and they are the ones in which either L1 and L2 (or both(prenominal)) meet the most important role. This is partially caused by the fact that learners often experimentation with prepositions and articles they know they fag endnot rely on the interference/transfer from Polish. Hence, they build their own hypotheses an d try to insert the correct functional word. tho, some syntax errors are difficult to classify. Most of the deviances result from applying Polish syntactic rules to English phrases. The primary(prenominal) difficulty is that the misuse choice of word results in the emergence of a semantic error, and if a larger phrase is indite on the radical of L1 rules, it renders the whole phrase or sentence incomprehensible for a non- Polish speaker. Then, malformed sentences make English difficult to decode even for a proficient speaker. It has also been one of the main concerns of the branch of linguistics, which is, researching similarities and dissimilarities between first and foreign language acquisition, as well as determining the strategies which learners employment in the course of these processes.Teaching adolescent foreign language learners is a challenge for second language teachers and on that layer are many reasons fuck it. first off it is of the essence(p) to emphasize t he fact that in the case of children, acquiring L2 comes together with global cognitive and affective development of a child, which retrieves that even though children have no meta-awareness, they are capable of voluntary acquisition that is not hindered by personality, motivation, attitude or other factors (Brown, 2000). of age(p) learners, such as adolescents or adults undergo the process of language acquisition in a different way. It looks more like a ballock sort of learning (which is the result deliberate education) in the course of which diaphanous rules and language content are presented since the cognitive development is already sinless(prenominal) in this age group. In other words, adolescents are able to pretend in abstract terms, they drive out learn far complex grammatic issues as the already developed meta-cognition and inductive learning ability chuck up the sponge them for that (Ellis,1995).There are various factors which influence second language learning. They allow unmarried learner differences such as age, cognitive style, intelligence, motivation/needs, learners grammatical system and learners native language. According to Komorowska (2002) adults and adolescent learning is unnatural it is very much easier if they learn a second language or peculiar(prenominal) goals or reasons which results in a greater motivation. Littlewood (1984,p.53) confirms the importance of motivation for learning a second languageIn second language learning as in every other field of human learning, motivation is the crucial run which determines whether a learner embarks on a task at all, how much energy he devotes to it, and how long he perseveres.According to Hopp (2004), two kinds of motivation sack be distinguished intrinsic and extrinsic. The former one is more prevalent among adults. The learners see language as an instrument to raise their vanity and achieve special goals such as getting a better(p) job. The second kind of motivation is characteristic of a childs way of learning. both(prenominal) these types of motivation are useful in the language learning process. suit for choosing the topicWriting is a very important skill, however it causes much more problems than speaking or reading especially for L2 learners who think in their own language. In Poland the majority of secondary school pupils have not mastered this skill due to the need of emphasis on teaching writing. During studies in Poland and working as a teacher of English, the researcher discovered a number of errors made by Polish learners. A big number of these errors were similar to the ones she used to make as a don or even intermediate learner of English. Most of them reflected her neediness of competence, knowledge of rules, whereas other errors were very much related to the writers receive tongue. Linguistically speaking, thither were transfer errors, or, in other words, errors which involved interference e.g. Polish grammatical rules were ap plied to English. There are various reasons why the researcher has chosen this topic. One of these is differences between the two languages and also difficulties facing the learners from Poland. Although Polish educatees learn English language in primary and secondary schools, they are not able to produce correct sentences. They still try to translate sentences from their native language into English. All of the rules that need to be applied in L2 are different in L1. Thus, Polish learners and other non-native speakers (NNS) are prone to make more errors.1.2. Aim and Objectives of the studyThe research has been conducted with reference to secondary school pupils from Poland. The overall aim of the study is to examine what type of errors are most common in the written discourse of the students. The associated research objectives areWhat sorts of errors are most common in the written discourse of Polish learners of English as a foreign language?What is the percentage of various erro rs in learners written discourse?What are then the possible sources of those errors?How might the absolute frequency of these errors be reduced?Why these errors occur? What could be done to mitigate written discourse?1.3.Outline of the studyThe dissertation is divided into five chapters. It begins with the entrance describing the general priming coat of the study.The second chapter provides a literature overview of theories related to errors and their sources. This part also shows classification and explanation of language behaviors. The definition of Contrastive psychoanalysis and Error compend can also be found it this chapter.A explanation of methodology can be found in the tierce chapter. The motive discusses the instrument for collecting and analyzing the data.Chapter four deals with results from analysis of students errors in written compositions. Students samples and questionnaires are examined and interpreted in detail.The last chapter draws some conclusions on the research and considers recommendations for students and teachers. It also discusses implications for future teaching and researchChapter IITheoretical background2.1 Nature of errorIt is obvious that every language learner is jounce to make errors which are typically human characteristic. Errors have been of interest to many researchers as they are seen as a very important broker in language acquisition. According to Norrish (1983) they can occur for many reasons they may arise from the choice of the material, from the learners processing of the material or even from learners lack of attention. However the most wicked kind of language deviances is caused by lack of learners knowledge.It is very important to introduce the distinction between errors, mistakes, relapsings and slips. These terms are frequently misused by teachers. Although they have a similar meaning, the differences are significant. As for an error, numerous definitions have been given by different linguists with va rious attitudes towards errors.In most cases errors are regarded as negative language behavior. Norrish (1983,p.7) believed they are undesirable a sign of failure and systematic deviation, when a learner has not learnt something and consistently gets it wrong. Corder (1967) and Richards (1974) also consider errors as deviations from a bill linguistic system. To support this assumption Corder (1967,p.166) saysErrors are systematic, consistent deviances characteristic of the learners linguistic system at a given breaker point of learning. The key point is that the learner is using a definite system of language at every point in his developmentThe learner errors are examine of this system and are themselves systematicA similar attitude was presented by Dulay and Burt (1982,p.138) who considered errors as the flawed side of learners speech or writing.On the other hand errors can also be seen as an important and verifying part of learning a language. As Norrish (1983,p.6) states the error itself may be a necessary part of learning a language. People are not able to detect errors because they have not learned the particular part of the material.Another linguist who was interested in this area was Ellis (1986,p.9), who also believed in the good side of error, statingErrors are an important source of information about SLA, because they introduce conclusively that learners do not simply see target language rules and then reproduce them in their own utterances. They testify that learners construct their own rules on the basis of input data, and that in some instances at least these rules differ from those of the target language.Lightbown and Spada (1999) agreed with the positive sides of errors, claiming that they can be the result of seeking the correct structure of the language.A different, less serious type of language behavior is called a mistake. According to Corder (1967) mistakes are deviances due to performance factors which include limitation of memory o r excited strain. Ellis (1997,p.17) claims that mistakes are simply the result of slips of the tongue and should not be seen as the result of a wrong interpretation of some rules of the target language. Moreover, the learner who has made this kind of random inaccuracies can correct them when his attention is haggard to them. Norrish (1983) identifies two more terms related to errors such as lapse and slips. The former one is defined as a type of wrong usage, which may occur due to lack of concentration or truncation of memory. He adds that this kind of wrong usage is not very serious and can be also made by native speakers at any time. The last type of language deviation depict by Norrish (1983,p.8) is a careless slip, that is caused by the learners inattentiveness in class.2.1.1. Significance of errorsAn essential theory referring importance of errors was introduced by Corder (1967) in his article The significance of learners errors. The author made a distinction between system atic and non systematic error (mistake). He noted that incorrect utterances were a sign of the language development. Moreover he provided evidence that errors are significant in 3 ways. Firstly to the teachers, errors can tell how far the learner progressed and what knowledge he has to learn to reach the aim. Furthermore they are helpful to the researcher as they demonstrate evidence of the way the language is learned and also methods that are used by a learner to discover the language. Thirdly, making of errors are regarded as a device used by a learner in order to learn. Corder (1967) also claims that making of errors is a strategy employed both by children acquiring their mother tongue and by those learning a second languge.2.2.Contrastive analysisIn 1960 some new theoretical concepts were brought in to foreign language teaching that is Contrastive Analysis and Error Analysis. As Connor (1996) stated the theory of second language learning assumed that originally that time most errors were attributed to interference. Contrastive analysis (CA), a major branch of applied linguistics was a very valuable tool in language teaching methodology for both teachers and learners. It provided comparative and contrastive description of the learners native language and the target language. It was assumed that if teachers knew the structure of the learners MT, they would be able to prepare better teaching materials. Lado (1957 cited in James 1980) explained that the contrastive study was established to transfer some features of the L1 to the L2 .Practitioners of CA aimed at explaining particular aspects of L2 learning. They looked at correspondence between the two languages. Lightbown and Spada (1999,p.23) gave an explanation to that situation, statingContrastive analysis possible action predicts that where there are similarities between the first and the second language, the learner bequeath acquire second language structures with ease where there are differences, the learner will have difficulty.As James (1980) observed, there are three things that can be predicted by CA. They include areas which will cause problems, learners difficulties and learners errors.The aims of the method are pedagogical. As Lado (1957) cited in Ellis. The main aim of CA is pedagogical. As Lado (1957 cited in Edmondson 1999,p.92) statesThe teacher who has made a comparison of the foreign language with the native language of the students will know better what the real problems are and can provide for teaching them.According to Gass and Selinker (2001) CA was based on several of the chase assumptionstheory defining language as habitlanguage learning involves a new set of habitsthe main cause of errors in the outturn of L2 is learners mother tongue.CA considers differences between L1 and L2learners should learn only dissimilarities between the two languages whereas similarities should be ignoreddifficulties are established by differences and similarities between L1 and L2Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis developed two positions that refers powerful and weak version. In the strong version it was assumed that prediction could be made about learning and the success of teaching material aft(prenominal) comparing the two languages. The weak version begins with an analysis of learners errors attempting to account for these errors on the basis of L1 and L2 differences.Besides the positive aspects of CA, researchers saw many problems deriving from comparison L1 and L2. According to Gass and Selinker (2001) CA could not predict all of the areas in learners difficulties. Moreover they claimed that it is inadequate to clarify the sources of certain types of errors. All of the disadvantages of CA led to development of some other linguistic notion called Error Analysis.2.3 Error AnalysisError analysis (EA) is a type of linguistic investigation which deals with the differences between learning a language and using the language by native speakers.According to C rystal (1980 135) error analysis is described asAs a technique for identifying, classifying and systematically interpreting the mistakes made by someone learning a foreign language, using any of principles and procedures provided by linguistics.A similar definition of Error Analysis (EA) is given by Brown (1980). He described it as a process of observation, classification of errors and after that show the systems used by learners. It was expanded when validity of CA was questioned. According Gass and Selinker (2001) EA offered more possible explanations than CA .It uses possibility of accounting for learners errors while CA attributed errors to mother tongue only. Corder (1967) stresses that EA has two aims diagnostic, which shows the state of learners interlanguage and prognostic which predicts future learners problems.It focuses on the errors learners make in SLA, assuming that these errors can be easy to avoid if the learners mother tongue and the target language were compared ( Richards, 1974). The analysis of the errors was carried out in order to detect difficulties in learning and to discover how a student learns a language. Moreover, EA is dealing with the exploring of the language of second language learners.2.4. Procedures of Error AnalysisThere were three steps introduced by Corder (1967) in EA reseachData assembly recognition of idiosyncrasyDecription Accounting for idiosyncratic dialect news report (the last-ditch object of error analysis)Furthermore, Gass and Selinker (2001,p.79) recognized six steps in conducting error analysis. They include Data collection, Identifying errors, classifying errors, quantifying errors, analysis of sources and remediation.Beside the advantages of EA, researchers found that it fell short in the analysis of SLA data. According to Gass and Selinker (2001,p.83) one of the problematic area was the attempt to specify causes to errors. EA assumed that errors belonged to one source or another. Dulay and Burt (1974b,p.11 5) identified the fact that EA cannot categorize errors. As a result they originate a category called enigmatical goofs which are defined as those that cant be categorized as either Interference-like goofs or L1 developmental goofs2.4.1. Identifying errorsIn this step Corder (1974) prepared a model for recognizing erroneous or idiosyncratic utterances in L2. According to this cast any sentences produced by learners can be investigated for idiosyncrasies. Based on that model, Corder made a distinction between overt and covert errors. As Ellis (1994) claims the first group of errors is very easy to identify due to the fact that a deviation in forms is very clear. Covertly erroneous sentences are superficially well formed but it can not be interpretable. This mean that the learner may create utterances that are produced on the basis of internalized rules. capable errors involve utterances which are ungrammatical. As Allen and Corder (1974,p.126) added that recognition of error is th us crucially dependent upon correct interpretation of the learners intentions.2.4.2. Description of errorsThe following step after recognizing the errors is describing them. There were a few attempts to describe errors using various taxonomies. Ellis (1997,p.18) among other linguists divided errors into categories. He presented a type of classification related to general ways in which the learners utterances differ from the reconstructed target-language utterances. A similar error taxonomy was produced by Dulay, Burt and Krashen (1982), who classified errors into four categories. They include omission, addition, misformation and misordering. The first kind occurs when some items are left out in well formed utterances. For instance She writing. Addition involves producing structure that is not required for an utterance to be considered grammatical. As Ellis (1997) claims the most common group of errors is misformation, which considers using sentences with the wrong form of the stru cture. As an example Dulay, Burt and Krashen (1982 cited in Ellis 1994,p.56) offer some samples of wrong forms such as He did not went there (Dulay, Burt and Krashen cited in Ellis (1994)). Evidence of misordering is found when some morphemes are in the wrong order. For instance What he is reading?.It is worthy that this kind of error taxonomy only shows which errors are the most frequent. However , it was not possible to explain how L2 is learned. Therefore a better framework was introduced by Corder (1973) who presented three steps in learning according to error nature and degree of systematicityPresystematic stageSystematic stagePostsystematic stageIn the first stage according to Brown (1980) learners do not know the language structure well, they experiment what results in making many errors. Moreover, students are not aware of particular systems or rules in L2 and they produce random errors. The presystematic stage is seen as the time when students know some rules which they at tempt to apply but unsuccessfully. The learner can explain his errors by providing linguistic messages in different structures. However, self correctness is still not possible in this phase. The next stage assumes that learners appear to have acquired a rule. Brown (1980) mentions a term backsliding to errors which can occur in this stage. Brown (1980,p.170) defines it as a form of linguistic regression arising out of the natural spiraling characteristic of human learning Appearance of postsystematic stage is found when learners make errors which can be corrected. As Brown (1980) claims at this stage errors seem to be infrequent. Moreover, learners are prone to produce correct utterances but it happens inconsistently. The rules were learned but the learners was unsuccessful due to a lapse or lack of attention.2.4.3. Explanation of errorsAfter identifying and describing the errors in SLA the researchers tried to find the explanation why these language behaviours occurred. There are n umerous interpretations underlying error appearance. According to Taylor (1986) the sources of errors can be psycholinguistic, sociolinguistic and epistemic. The first group of sources regards the nature of L2 system and the problems learners have in using it. sociolinguistic sources concern learners abilities to adjust his language in terms of the social context. The last category involves the learners lack of world knowledge. Psycho-linguistic sources of errors, were created by Richards (1974) who proposed a special figure accounting for them and enumerating certain mental phenomenon being in charge or certain accuracy failures, that isPerformance errors including transfer, interlingual (overgeneralization, transitional competence, induced errorsPerformance related to processing problems and communication strategies.Apart from the psycho-linguist sources Richard aimed at giving more origins which resulted in a list of three more sources that includeInterference related errors2.Int ralingual errors are divided into four following subcategoriesOver -generalization involves creating deviant structures in place of two target language structures (Ellis,1994,p.59). It can also be related to redundancy reduction. It may occur with forms which do not carry important contrasts for the learner. This means that ending -ed- in Past Simple can be omitted. As a result learners produce sentences like I go to University yesterday.ignorance of rule restrictions involves application of rules which should not appear in contexts. This is a type of transfer when the learner uses structures that have been previously acquired. It can occur even when the target language is close to the mother tongue. Some rule restriction errors may derive from similitude which is a major factor in the wrong use of prepositions. Learners may attempt to use the same prepositions by analogy what leads to producing sentences He explained me the keep from the sentence He showed me the book. Another ex ample of the analogy can be seen in article usage.incomplete rule application, that reflects errors related to analogy. The structures in learners production is not fully developed. This may result in producing declarative word order in questions like You like to swim? instead of Do you like to swim?false concepts hypothesized can originate from faulty inclusion body in the target language. This type of error appears when learners use structures was or were as a marker of Past Simple Tense in example One day it was happened.Developmental errors, which reflect learners competence and show general features of language acquisition. These errors are caused due to learners limited experience. In contrary Richards (1974, p.174) claims that they expatiate the learner attempting to build up hypotheses about the language.Another linguist who attempted to outline origins of errors was Brown (1980,p.173).whose classification was similar to Richards view. However he added a few more sources o f errors that are significant in a teachers agreement of learners interlanguage systems The author recognised such sources as communication strategies, prefabricated patterns and language switch.George (1972) presented a few arguments related to error derivation. He assumed that some sources of errors are universal. Furthermore, Richard and Sampson (1974) distinguished causes of errors which fall into seven categoriesTransferIntralingual interferenceSociolinguistic situationModality of exposure to TLAgeSuccessions of approximative systems worldwide hierarchy of difficultyApart from interlingual and intralingual sources James (1998) attempted to distinguished another type of sources such as induced errors. Another term described this kind of error was introduced by Brown, who called it context of learning. As Stenson (1974) explains these errors derive from the classroom situation. They occur when learners receive faulty explanation of grammatical rules. Such errors can show teache rs the level of the students language competence.2.4.3.1. TransferThe problem of language transfer has been explained by many researchers. It is believed that it plays a very important role in second language acquisition. According to Ellis (1997) transfer refers to an attempt to use the knowledge of languages that have been learned previously. Learners use their mother tongue experience in order to organize the second language data. They try to create their own rules, construct their grammars.Dulay, Burt and Krashen ( 1982 101) describe it asthe automatic, uncontrolled and subconscious use of quondam(prenominal) learned behaviors in the attempt to produce new responsesAccording to Arabski (1997) there are numerous factors playing role in transfer occurring. They include learners age, type of language structure and interlanguage development.Littlewood (1984) and many other linguists distinguish two types o

Managing Change Project of British Airways

Managing Change Project of British AirwaysThis encompass contains the idea of cheekal dislodge. This change is wide and non sharper changes interchangeable adding a sunrise(prenominal) person, structural change and watchfulness processes, innovation of youthful products new techniques and merges (cross border or etc). Change is arrestd to achieve a goal. priming of British AirwaysThe largest international scheduled airline of UK in British airways it was introduced on 25 August, 1919. Aircraft Transport and Travel limited (ATT) is the forerunner company of British Airways. Aircraft Transport and Travel limited introduced the worlds first daily international, scheduled or service between London and Paris. That flight was operated by a exclusive engine de Havilland DH4A biplane. It took come to from Hounslow Health which is near to success or companys occurrent Health row base. This flight took off with single passenger and committal including newspapers, Devonshire cre am and grouse.Changes in British AirwaysThe top and head humanity mountment of BA ca employ a big change in 2005.BA was awarded SKYTRAX and OAG airline of the di reverie 2006 2007.BA gained the Western Europe Award 2007to be the best airline.BA excessively bagged best Trans Atlantic Airline Award in 2007.The draw awayment BA proclaimed changes and established Health row Terminal 5 for the use of BA mainly. The cost of its foundation is 403 billion pound. Queen Elizabeth inaugurated it form whollyy on 14-03-2008. The passengers started to use the facility from 27-03-2008.ProblemsStaffs argon deprived of car park facility. Space has become very short. People have got to line up for a long for security check works argon delayed. baggage Handling system does not function easy. Belts that be used to deem bags are clogged.Levels of British Airways changeBritish Airways had a revolutionary change. It was mean a dominating schema.CharacteristicsThe change in the BA redefined exi sting parameters. thither is a change in presidency anatomical social structure and engineering science of BA.Objectives of changeChanges are occurred to encourage the individuals to think and crate something new. To make a emulous attitude in them to face the global economic and mart environment, these changes are required.The passengers are provided with good services by this change.BA has changed the internal and immaterial culture of the government.BA has introduced providing continental food to the passengers make upd sales.To survive in the market they started new technology and packages.BA wants to recruit individuals who have unadulterated acquaintance of managerial and technological skills that chiffonier create a owing(p) impact on their personality and character.To increase unit production, individuals are support to be a leader to carry on responsibility efficiently.The change has been occurred to cause a paradigm shift by creating a dynamic and dictatori al learning atmosphere and changing our corporate culture.The change helps BA to slump with knowledge based economy.To make the staff Knowledge workers they are provided with underlying conceptual teaching and latest managerial concepts skills. Changes help them to take the challenges of recent business sector.The purpose of BA training MBA programmed is to soften an individual by applying the training thoroughly.P2. organisational Structure of British airwaysThe function of British Airways is centralized. The policy and strategy of BA are made by the group of chair man and board directories. They also bewilder virtually changes in the presidency.Chief decision makerWillie WalshCustomer and Operations Executive Julia SimpsonReporting to the Chief Executive Roger Maynard worry Board Silla MaizeySource www.britishairways.orgThe above mentioned people are involved in planning strategies and responsible to carry the policies into effect in the organization and engender the ne w development in aviation industry (new air buses, take new ideas, knock offsizing in a large scale etc) in British airways in this competitive and challenging atmosphere BA is taking internal and external challenges by which it occupied the headlines of Britain Media.Strength of Beauracratic organization at British AirwaysThe upper level of the management has full maneuver all over the debauched and thence led to better monitoring use.The decision is interpreted by the wise people of the company.With the better decision of the organization the harvest is properly directed.impuissance of Beauracratic organization at British AirwaysThe primary blemish of this organization is that it lacks innovation within the organization as the subordinates are not taking shiver-dance in the decision making procedure.Due to slight involvement in the participation procedure the employment gets de motivated and hence less productive within the systemHr fuelnot utilize the creativeness of the systems employees and hence less improvement in the growth of the employeeP3. Alternative forms of organisational developmentMechanistic OrganizationThe structure of the organization is strong and canvas tightlyThe atmosphere is spunkyly specializedRigid departmentalizationNarrow periods of controlHigh formalizationLimited information networkAdvantagesMechanistic organizational structures make the complex and tough tasks easy in complex environment. either employee is trained for a particular task that is why his contribution to the companys railroad siding is not huge. The senior level managers are giving importance on developing technical processes to decide the way of performing the tasks. New jewel cutters Bridge social organization or daily operations at MTR can be mentioned as typesetters case.Disadvantages world rigid and static Mechanistic Organizational Structure often creates obstruction in the change in environmental bits and slows the advancement, of the company. This structure does not debate with highly competitive markets like telecommunication market segment. Mechanistic structure does not function with the highly good professionals workforce.Organic OrganizationThis structure is highly flexible and changeableNon regulate jobsThe structure is based on fluid squadThe supervision of this structure is direct but littleThe rules of this structure is minimal and formalThis structure has an open communication networkAdvantagesOrganic management structure is worthy at the time when the work environment is very uncertain and volcanic there is a lot of swift changing situations in market conditions. It is also suitable to the enabled and empowered workforce to make decisions for solving problems. An example would be professional consulting forms.DisadvantagesOrganic structure cannot adjust with the critical situation of Organization. It cannot work in large firm. This structure fails to help the company when an useful execution strategy is dependent on the ability of managers to have an advice in decision making process.Transferring the structure into DecentralizedFrom Centralized To Decentralized be sick to workFunction driven Purpose drivenClosed Openseparate WholeTop down hierarchical Local tensionControlled scepteredCorporate Boundary less Centralized Distributed/ NetworkedDepartmentalized ConnectedSameness formStability Growth/ ChangeP4. Reason of change at British AirwaysThe chairman and board of direction of the British Airways are trying to downsize in the organization to develop the organization future and reputation and fame against its competitors. though for the wear few decades they had enviable place in the market but in the recent years they occupy 15 percent of the market of high competition with separate international airlines. So they should ask close a huge and meaningful change in British Airways the main focus to change variable are followed-Reduction in cabin cabalInternal a nd External changeFinancial lossesDrop in profitIncreased competitionLoss of Market Share scientific developmentCultural changeFactors Forcing changeBritish Airways are world pressurized over the last few years both internally and externally. So the group of chairman and Board of director have decided to bring some chapters likeBA commenced a new dimension in lieu of standing still a new corporate identity element was introduced, heralding an E6 billion development program and new strategic direction.Change internal and external cultureCost must be cut down engine room should be changed (new interior programme, Wi-Fi, comfortable seats)Increased competition changing marketInner Factors forcing changeA formal research can identify the internal factors that force to create a change in organization.StrengthTo get over the difficulties the Organization requires strength which helps to take countersink in the co0mpetitve market at the time of changing the focus of the company.Weaknes sThe technological and cultural change can resolve weakness. If there is a weakness in Companys product service, Company should change it as in automobile industry. The weakness in Organization Motivates to change.ThreatsA company principally faces two kinds of threats like threats from competitors and alternative product which compel a company to react.External Forcing changeThe external factors that create change in an organization areEconomicIf an economic crisis is created all over the world it result force to cut down the cost of business actuate. Fluctuation in oil prices affected consumer spending for 13 years in the age of more than acute competition market and BA, for continuing the long terminus business reduced capacity slightly during zoos on a receding plan.PoliticalSufficient security measures must be taken by BAS to attract passengers confidence and trust because of the threats of miscreants in the past.SocialElder generations have a lot of time to spend on inte rnational travel. So a change in cultural stage is necessary for potential opportunity for growth.Environmental/Air stepThe upward(a) air gauge and noise impact on local communities around the airport are significant issues (implementation of climate changing bill)Resistance against changeBritish Airways was stymy by union, Government department of labour and development, local and Environmental nongovernmental organization who gave the high pressure. concretion was displeased with down rising decision of company. Union called for a strike. Many people are unaware of the importance of change. practically there are disagreeing goals in the company. Costs should be reduced to increase resources and to achieve change. Organizational change often creates an adverse situation in case of how the members want to do anything. So literature discusses most of the organizational change.P5. Evaluation of change management at British airways-Types of changesEngineering, project, structur e, new aircraft and new technology equipment are the types of issues that are to be changed.Change in TechnologyTechnological changes are required in the company to improve both attributes of organic and mechanic conditions to acquire creativeness and effectiveness.Two kinds of planning are-Task planningThe requirement of organization can be met by suitable premises.Layout planningAn organization should consider their workplace, equipment, workflow, staff, process as come up as health and safety requirement in regard to competition.Being one of greatest airlines of world British Airways target to be an un interrogative mooded leader of travel world and it enjoys their growth from the year 2002. They recorded 8340 one thousand million euro beside of a very little 110 million loss. They provide proper environment to ensure their position in the airline industry. They concede 360 aircrafts which travel 270 destinations of 97 countries.In the way to their rises they also experienced lots of rampart during their growth. Political conflict among countries was the major threats for them. After 9/11 more people turn down their plan for travel in team for lives regularly. Thus the demand for their service decline they face eco nominal crisis. Though it is big concern but cannot put down it.Due to recession in the industry, many of the organization choose for bankruptcy an employee cut off along with downsizing. But British airways choose to cut down expenses peachy down workforce. They cut down almost 73000 jobs averaging 23% between sublime 2001 March 2004. The industry sells the effects of Iraqi war also in 2003.During crisis, company seeks help of corporate to bring them out of dark. Thus they put the whole matter their late depending upon the leaders decision. Leaders have to throw huge role, to make them out of really threatening crisis. This asks a question mark of how they would treat their followers the way they will follow. Thus at last its the m atters of determination of leader who have to contribute to make business organization improve led to the success.P6. BPR model of Change managementCompanies are utilize this model for the change management process for coping with the environmental changes spud business vision process objectives Through a business vision with particular business objective like cost reduction BPR is driven. It also implies quality output improvement, reduction of time work life quality as tumesce as empowerment learning.Identify processes to be By using high impact access most firms focused on the major processes as well conflict with vision of business. Only small number of organization use Exhaustive approaches for identification at all processes of an organization the use them in sequence of redesign urgency.Understand mensuration of Existing process Measurement understanding at existing processes is make by redesigning them. Problem must be understood to avoid repetition. In additio n measurement needs accuracy for future development.Identify IT Levels It involves them improving coordination information network across functional ling units in large scale. It allows in independence in task management. It can also develop process designing. So, it performs the role of redesign at early stage.Design pulp a prototype of the new process- At the end of the current process the actual design cannot be found. It shows prototype view with moderate expectation management. The important factors to reconcile prototype generation process design by using it as a tool of design. Understanding creating design criteria is important.Through agreement between stakeholder owner the prototypes of process is changed as well as initiative for organizational redesign is taken. slaying of it is done in pilot basis, will regular examination of problems achievement of objective. Modification is important. It the approach get acceptance from all then it came in to implementation .The current body politic future of Reengineering-By the year 1990 many concern adopt for reengineering. about 30 billion US$ was spent for reengineering of American business firm within 1995 and 1996. It has opened a wide sick of results, some of the used get large cost reduction, greater profit throughout benefit. In many cases IT plays the most important role, in redesign of process. With lots of in advance(p) steps of IT application make huge difference in redesigning.P7. executing procedure of Change management at British airwaysStrategy and Implementation of /technology changeBritish airways management conducted a research about passengers to fulfill the international standard of facilities in Terminal 5 and reliableness of seats and inside atmosphere of aircrafts before starting new aircraft and construction of terminal5. If the new staff is trained success can be win quickly. Significant environment can be improved by replace Airbuses. Planning creates controversy i n starting new technology policy. The created problem should be identified and purpose must be transparent.Other Plans for implementationEducation the employee must educate properly in order to cope with the organizational changes that has occurred within British Airways to have a proper knowledge about the change management.Chipping in the employee must take part in the decision making and problem solving procedure at British AirwaysStake holders involvement The stake holders should be provided with proper feedback about the management change that has taken place with British airways.Communication A transparent communication will led to better implementation procedure and this will facilitate proper negotiation procedure within the organizationRecommendationThere are different processes of training programs which adopts new technology and help the company to attain success.People can easily pop off with each other if the structure of the company is divided into several parts. To b reak the bureaucratic system power must be given past in hierarchy level. To create a change in the organization an experienced consultant can be employ. The company should get more feedback from its employees so that it can be able to understand the problem and take decision to resolve it. Employee should work altogether in team to manage the change.Contingency Plan-Strong business rational with develop business plan increasing of employee satisfaction is needed.Proper effective involvement of employee plays let out role for change.Vision leadership Proper commitment from leaders steering from link manager help the change agenda to follow the organization. say-so Employment of maximum eligible employee develops the productivity as well as progress.Charging of working environment involving culture management of people develop surgical procedure of business also improve the quality of employees livesConclusionIn short, I want to explain the way an organization uses to ma ke effective changes in supporting local communities in the countries where British Airways functions effectively. The changes effectively impact on technology and also in increasing the performance of Airline. These changes can bring apart the improvement of new market culture. These changes can be applied to highlight areas where marketing strategy requires reappearing, especially in design range and distribution channels. British Airways supports more than 100 local communities as well as many smaller programmers held both in UK and in other countries.

The shear strength of soils

The plume speciality of nastinesssIntroductionThe fleece distinctiveness of skanks is essendial for any kind of stability analysis. Therefore, it is classic to determine safe set. For this purpose triaxial tests atomic number 18 close appropriate. Nevertheless, direct shear tests are by and large performed to determine the shear strength of spots.From the tests result a clearer picture of the flaw strata, there will be look Shear Test where the selective information deal be interpreted and correlated info territory parameters. The reason parameters will be designed accordingly to the characteristic of the soil at the target itself. This case study is about evaluating contamination for the specific office. It involves the interlingual r demiseition and manipulation of data from the Shear test and chemical tests. The whole work at will be determination of contamination and measure its ready on the soil and then propose some remedy practices and methods.Part (1) Soils ContaminantsSoils are categorized according to the contaminants present (type and amount)Soils that get contaminants below regulatory careSoils that contain hazardous profusion materialNon-hazardous1. badSoil that contains hazardous dispel mustiness be managed as much(prenominal) when contamination is above the nonhazardous waste limits or is separatewise classified a hazardous waste. The only options for soils that contain a hazardous waste are on-site remediation or off-site management as a hazardous waste.2. Non-HazardousContaminated soil is non-hazardous when both of the adjacent criteria are meta. The contaminant levels are above the most pixilated soil cleaning criteria established by NJDEP.b. The waste is not classified as a hazardous waste.3. Soils That Contain Contaminants Below regulative ConcernSoils that contain contaminants at levels that are below the most stringent site cleanup levels established by NJDEP for a specific site are not of regulatory c oncern with the exception of sites in the Pinelands scene of action Brownfield sites come in all sizes and shapesThe Brownfield Law created four different cleanup tracks. cleanup levels at these tracks are based, in whole or in fork, upon the sites rising anticipated routine. A site to be use for industrial purposes, for instance, would not have to be cleaned up as much as a site intended for commercial use. (See Appendix A for a description of each of the tracks).Clesn Up target cleanups return be conducted by federal, state, or local government agencies and/or their contractors, by private fictional characteries accountable for the discharge of the hazardous substances, or by purchasers of land who did not produce the contamination but are willing to pay for and conduct the cleanup. unavowed parties can be directed by DEP to conduct cleanups or individuals can come to the department voluntarily and offer to do part of or all of a cleanup.Cleanups can be conducted to all ow for any future use of the land from residences, schools, and day care centers to commercial buildings, or juvenile industrial uses. Cleanups can also be conducted to turn reasonly foul sites into parkland for passive and/or active recreation. The level of cleanup guide to protect human health and the environment is determined by the end use envisi iodind for the property. Obviously, cleanup to more stringent standards is required when tribe will be living on the property, or when sensitive populations such(prenominal) as children will be using the property for schools or recreation. Protectiveness can be obtained by either totally removing the contaminants of concern, or by crossing them, or by limiting access to the substances by creating barriers to contact, such as with soil or otherwise types of capping material.Certain cleanups can be conducted at bump by private individuals, with little oversight by the state. However, cleanups involving ground and draw near wate rs must be conducted with DEPs oversight because the state is the trustee for those lifelike resources. Most parties conducting remediation will come to DEP for oversight if they desire a No Further Action (NFA) garner at the end of the process. That letter certifies that the states regulations have been met as of a specific date, as described specifically in the letter. With the NFA comes a Covenant Not to Sue, which defines those parties who are no prolonged liable to conduct sumal cleanup at the site.Part (2) manoeuvre Shear TestA. Shear StrengthIn the Mohr-Coulomb theory of failure, shear strength has two comp onenessntsone for inherent strength due to bonds or attractive forces between particles,the other produced by frictional resistance to crop movement The shear strength of cohesionless soils is limited to the frictional component.When the direct shear test is used to investigate a cohesionless soil, successivetests with change magnitude convening stress will establi sh a straight line that passes through and through the origin. The tiptoe of inclination of the line with respect to the horizontal axis is the bung of internal friction.Values of the angle of internal friction are inclined in the following table. If the soil is dense when tested, initially higher values for the angle of internal friction will be measured, but with increasing amounts of strain, the angle will decline to the approximate ranges seen in the Table.SOIL typewriteANGLE , DEGREESSand and gravel mixture33 36Well-graded smoothen32 35Fine to medium sand29 32Silty sand27 32Silt (non-plastic)26 30The shear strength of a cohesive soil is more involved than a cohesionless material. The differences are due to the role of pore water in a cohesive soil. Most cohesive soils in field conditions are at or near saturation because of their tendency to hold moisture and their low permeability.When weight is employ to a soil of this type, the load is back up by an increase i nthe pore-water pressure until pore-water can drain into regions of dispirit pressure.At that pinnacle, soil particles are forced closer together and the strength increases,just like a cohesionless soil. Time is an important factor however, because it takes endless for water to move out of a low permeability material. ship Shear TestResults of the direct shear tests should be evaluated statistically. The statistical sound judgment in the shear cuff test includes the values of friction angle () and cohesion (c), derived from the Mohr-Coulomb regression line, and the (original) measured values of peak shear strength. In previous publications only the derived parameters and c were taken into account. As the most important result the investigations have shown that it makes a remarkable difference whether the pair of variables and c or peak shear strength is considered.http//www.csus.edu/indiv/c/cornwell/engineering/9-20-06.pdfDirect Shear Box Test Procedure1. Bring the shear thu mp togetherhttp//www.civil.mrt.ac.lk/docs/direct_shear_test2. Compact the soil sample (which has reached the optimum moisture content) in the mould.3. Place the sample into the shear box seat4. Record the weight of the applied load and place the loading plate on top of the upper porous platehttp//www.civil.mrt.ac.lk/docs/direct_shear_test5. Remove the alignment screws to hold the shear box together.6. Tighten the diagonally opposite screws to reduce the frictional force.7. Reset the control gauges.7. Apply the normal load.8. Start the motor to produce the desired uninterrupted rate of shearing9. Take readings from the gauges,a) Proving ring.b) Horizontal displacement.c) Vertical displacement.10. When the shear load starts to reduce or remains constant stop the testhttp//www.civil.mrt.ac.lk/docs/direct_shear_testA. selective informationProving ringHorizontal(0.001 in)VerticalTime09.000.00000059.110.000030159.120.00010015.59.260.00013018.59.380.000200209.630.000300229.870.00040023 10.120.0005002410.360.0006002310.620.0007002410.870.0008002611.120.0009002511.370.0010002611.620.0011002711.870.0012002712.120.00130027.512.370.0014002812.620.0015002812.870.0016002913.110.0017002813.370.0018003113.620.00190029.513.870.002000ResultsShear stress KpaHorizontal(0.001 in)Time0.0009.0000000.9519.1100302.8629.1201002.9509.2601303.5289.3802003.8129.6303004.1949.8704004.38110.1205004.57710.3606004.38110.6207004.57710.8708004.95911.1209004.76311.3710004.95911.6211005.14511.8712005.14512.1213005.24312.3714005.33112.6215005.33112.8716005.52713.1117005.33113.3718005.52713.6219005.62513.872000FAILUER = 5.527 kpa.Part (3) Contamination judgingPH MeasurementsPH measurements were measured against TSS results, While no ostensible correlation was found between pH and salinity samples presenting higher pH generally had higher TSS concentrations, as indicated in the figure below. The addition of cement (and its picture on turbidity) appears to have had a noticeable effect on pH.In a ddition to the various testing that was performed as part of this study, two additional studies beyond the original scope were conducted(a) an evaluation of the effect that positive content found within silt sediments would have on soil-cement hydration and strength gain, and(b) an assessment of whether the cement stabilization/ unbendableification of dirty sediments bars organic and inorganic contaminants within the sediment.Part (4) Remediation. chemical substance Fixation And Solidification winning into consideration to select the best fit remediation method and conserve ecosystem and trying not to undergo major landscape disruption.One choice to dredging and disposing of contaminated sediment is to solidify the sediment in-situ using CDSM, and rear the stabilized sediment with a cap. In this scenario, the mixing is a viable way to reduce the potential for highly contaminated sediments to be scoured over judgment of conviction by natural hydrologic events, vessel traffic or dredging.In situations where decisions regarding removal of sediment have not yet been do or if management alternatives (decontamination) are not yet fully developed, the CDSM engine room can be used to stabilize sediment for later removal.Chemical fixation and Solidification, CFS, also commonly referred to as Solidification/Stabilization Treatment, S/S, is a capaciously used treatment for the management of a roomy range of wastes, especially those classified as hazardous. The initial application of the applied science in the United States dates back to the 1950s when it was fruitfully used to treat and dispose of radioactive waste.The USEPA considers S/S an established treatment technology, and has determine it as the best demonstrated available technology, BDAT, for 57 RCRA-listed wastes. It is anticipated that 30% of the CERCLA (Superfund) remediation sites include the use of S/S.There is an ample dust of technical literature that documents the fundamentals for applying S/S, as well as the practical experience using the technology in a wide variety of wastes, contaminants and chemical matrices. The applicability of using S/S to immobilize the principal contaminants in the Passaic River sediments was evaluated.The following sections briefly summarize those findings.There are several additives mentioned in the literature as potential enhancers of the PCB immobilization. These depend on the particular conditions of the application1. Organically modified clays2. Activated carbon3. ferrous hydroxide4. Rubber particulateA well-documented case where S/S was used for the immobilization of PCBs in contaminated soils is provided in the Yellow water supply Road Dump in Duval County, Florida. Where In that case, a superfund site that started sanative action in 1984 was removed from the NPL in 1999. During the remedial activities, 4472 cubic yards of PCB contaminated soils were excavated and treated with S/S and placed back within the former operations body politic of the site.A groundwater monitoring program was established, and monitoring rise up were installed to evaluate the future need for contingent pump-and-treat remedy. The site was monitored as part of the EPA five-year review program. In September 2000, the five-year-review report established that the selected remedy remained protecting(prenominal) of human health and the environment. Site inspections and groundwater monitoring continue to ensure long-run protectiveness.Out-Of-State RecyclingFor cycle soils out-of-state, a written determination from NJDEP is required as to the non-applicability of the solid waste management regulations set forth in N.J.A.C. 726-1 et seq. For sites without a Site Remediation computer program lead (i.e., Industrial Site Recovery Act, way of Underground Storage Tanks, Bureau of Field Operations) and for the recycling of soil as a solid process waste, contact the Bureau of Resource Recovery and Technical Programs (609/984-6985).Sites with a Site Remediation Program lead must send this information in lieu of a Soil Reuse Proposal to the assigned case manager for an boon. The following are the standard requirements pursuant to (N.J.A.C. 726-1) for approval to send soils out-of-statea. A letter, sent to the Bureau of Resource Recovery and Technical Programs from the generator of soil, certifying that the soil in question has been analyzed or is known in accordance with N.J.A.C. 726G-5.1 not to contain a hazardous waste. This also must include any necessary test results documenting that the soil contains constituents and hazardous waste characteristics below their regulatory levels.b. A letter sent to the Solid and Hazardous Waste Division from the receiving a quick-wittedness stating that they agree to accept the qualify amount of soil, indicating intention and method to beneficially use or utilise the soil and the time frame for such activity from the date of communicate at the facility.In addition, a copy of this information must be sent directly to the solid waste coordinator of the county of the soils origin.c. A letter sent to the Solid and Hazardous Waste Division from the proper regulatory position of the receiving state or a copy of a period facility permit verifying that facility is operating in accordance with relevant rules and regulations and can accept the soils for the declared use/reuse.d. Once the soil is delivered to the set use/reuse facility, a letter from the facility or a bill of lading stating the date and amount of soil received must be sent to Solid and Hazardous Waste Division and the solid waste coordinator of the county of the soils origin.Operational Landfill CoverOperating landfills that are permitted to accept ID 27 waste whitethorn use non-hazardous soil for daily landfill cover with approval from the Bureau of Landfill and Recycling Management. Fine grained soils which may create erosion problems or are easily windblown are prohibited for use as daily cover .Brownfield sites are found in both urban and homespun settings and the present challenges that make the cleanup and redevelopment of these sites unique as compared with other real estate projects.Brownfield sites deal with four key issues, includingenvironmental obligation Developers, land owners, and prospective associated with the propertys storey can be successfully addressed. pecuniary Barriers Private financial institutions or investors may be reluctant to provide loans for sites impacted by real or perceived environmental contamination.Cleanup Activities Redeveloping a brownfield site may take longer than that of a true real estate development if remediation is warranted.Feasible Reuse A viable plan for putting the site back into productive use based upon the localitys goals and well researched information are critical to successful redevelopment. scorn these challenges significant opportunities exist for brownfield redevelopment which can economically revitalize an a rea and improve the quality of life for communities.Brownfield redevelopment is also an ideal time to integrate a number of sustainability features that can result in better storm water management, reduced air emissions and energy consumption, and preserve the history and culture of our communities.The purpose of this guide is to provide a starting point for information about brownfield redevelopment planning, regulatory considerations and resources available from the federal Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Iowa Departments of Economic Development and Natural Resources.6. References1- NJDEP. Discussion composing on Landfill Closure and Remediation Issues.(1993).2- Environmental Protection Agency. Handbook for healing(p) Action at Waste Disposal Sites.3- Bujang B.K. Huat et al., (2007) Modified shear box test apparatus for measuring shear strength of unsaturated counterweight soil , Faisal Hj. Ali, S.Hashim , Thomson Gale (December 27, 2007)4- Marcel van der Perk, (2 009), Soil and Water Contamination From molecular to Catchment Scale, TF Books UK 1 edition (January 28, 2009)Appendix ADescription Of The Brownfield Cleanup overflysThe rule establishes four different tracks that a developer can follow in remediating a site.Under Track 1, a remedial program shall achieve a cleanup level that will allow the site to be used for any purpose without restriction and without reliance on the long-term job of institutional or engineering controls. ECL 27-1415(4). With respect to soil remediation, the statute directs that Track 1 cleanups shall achieve the generic wine SCOs designed to allow for unrestricted future use of the property. Id. A developer who remediates a site to Track 1 standards receives a greater tax credit than is available for remediation under the other three tracks.Under Track 2, a remedial program may include restrictions on the use of the site or reliance on the long-term employment of engineering and/or institutional controls. EC L 27-1415(4). With respect to soil remediation, however, the statute directs that a Track 2 cleanup shall achieve the generic SCOs appropriate for the future use of the property without the use of institutional or engineering controls to reach such objectives. Id.Under Track 3, the developer does not need to achieve the generic SCOs, but instead may use site specific data to determine soil remediation objectives. ECL 27- 1415(4). Those sitespecific objectives must accommodate with the criteria used to develop the generic SCOs. Id. Like the generic SCOs, soil remediation objectives developed by the applicant pursuant to Track 3 shall not exceed an excess cancer happen of one in one million for carcinogenic end points and a hazard index of one for non-cancer end points, except where rural soil background contamination exceeds that risk level. ECL 27-1415(6)(b).A Track 4 remedial program shall achieve a cleanup level that will be protective for the sites current, intended or reasonab ly anticipated residential, commercial, or industrial use with restrictions and with reliance on the long-term employment of institutional or engineering controls to achieve such level. ECL 27-1415(4). The statute instructs that for Track 4, exposed push through soils shall not exceed the generic contaminant-specific SCOs developed for unrestricted, commercial, or industrial use pursuant to this subdivision which conforms with the sites current intended, or reasonably anticipated future use. ECL 27-1415(6)(d). The statute defines exposed surface soils as two feet for sites used for residential use and one base of operations for

Effect of English Language in the World

Effect of position words in the WorldAt the give birth time confabulation and traffic argon growing, and globalisation has linked the world to a greater extent near to croakher. The world departs sm exclusively(a)er and smaller every day technology is continuously updated, byplay contacts and information sharing speed is as well as accelerating. This project investigates position as an foreign actors line and evaluates its rear on external business and merchandise. This project aims to identify the advantages and disadvantages of side of meat as a global dustup with specific reference to marketing. Firstly, this project go away critically appraise the brilliance of oral communication to market-gardening. The project go forth wherefore go to investigate the enclose position of face as an inter study row in marketing, followed by a critical appraisal of the advantages and disadvantages of position international oral communication in marketing.Chapter 1 Introdu ctionThe side of meat quarrel is utilize as a global international language. I chose to do a literature set in motion survey on side of meat as an international language because I am interested in this. According to Crystal (2003) there are 320-380 million tribe whose first language is slope, 300-500 million plenty whose trice language is incline and a number of most 500-1000 million good deal who recognize the importance of incline as an international language.The history of English language began over 1500 years ago. In 1066, the Normans conquered the English. French became the language of the fat and powerful, still the poor primarily spoke English. In the 14th century, the British used many words from French or Latin, and much of the style no longer exists. However, as Britain began to be more than(prenominal) powerful and skeleton up an empire, from the about the end of the 17th century, the English language became more important.English has become a wor ld language because of its establishment as a fuss tongue outside England Above all, it is the great emergence of population in the United States that has given English its pre move stand up in the world. (Soars, 198652)This project investigates English as an international language and evaluates its effect on international business and marketing. This question aims to identify the advantages and disadvantages of English as a global language with specific reference to marketing. Firstly, this project provide critically appraise the importance of language to culture. The project will because go to investigate the present position of English as an international language in marketing, followed by a critical appraisal of the advantages and disadvantages of English international language in marketing.Chapter 2 Literature reviewthither are many people speak English now. And David Crystal2003 verbalise that there are 320-380 million people refers to the traditional bases of English, where it is the primary language It includes the USA, UK, Ireland, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. There are 300-500 million is the second language. And there are 500-1000 million people recognize the importance of English as an international language. Why is English an international language? It is from a book with English as a world language said that English has become a world language because of its establishment as a mformer(a) tongue outside England, in all the continents of the world. This exporting of English began in the seventeenth century, with the first settlements in North America. Above all, it is the great harvest-home of population in the United States, assisted by massive immigration in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries that has given the English language its present standing in the world. And Crystal support that there are seen kinds of result given to the question historical reasons, internal political reasons, external scotch reasons, practical reaso ns, intellectual reasons, entertainment reasons, and some wrong reasons.Why English language is a branding? According to Maggie St. John (1992) said that the nigh underlying concept underling marking is that of human needs and marketing has become a key factor in the success of western sandwich businesses. Because English language include this points, so English language is a branding.Chapter 3 MethodologyI chose to do a literature base survey on English as an international language because I am interested in this. It was therefore necessary to get more information about this topic. I used books and relevant e-journals from the JMU library and got supporter from my school.The objective of this research question is to evaluate the effect of English as an international language on international business and marketing and then to identify the advantages and disadvantages for business and marketing. Hopefully this research will be usable research because there are many people stud ying English and they do non really contend why they just sleep together they need to study to find a good job. This research will perhaps bump off people see more clearly why they need to apprise English, non just to look for a job.In order to make this information valid and reliable, I will make a questionnaire and send it to 20 or more people information English 10 come from China and 10 come from the new(prenominal) people whose first language is not English. The questionnaire sheet will sent by e-mail to my friends. If I had more time it would be realizable to do a much colossalger, more representative survey.Chapter 4 abridgment and findings4.1 To critically appraise the importance of language to culture.As Lotman states, (cited Bassnett, 1991) No language faeces exist unless it is steeped in the context of culture and no culture can exist which does not view as at its centre the twist of natural languageLanguage, then, is the heart within the body of culture, an d it is the interaction in the midst of the two that results in the continuation of life-energy. In the same way that the surgeon, in operation(p) on the heart, cannot neglect the body that surrounds it, so the translator treats the text in isolation from the culture at his peril. (Bassnett, 199114)4.2 To investigate the present position of English as an International Language in marketing.Nowadays, the present position of English as an International Language occupies a spicy position in marketing. What is marketing? Today market is the good economy, the carrier or the authentic running performance.The more developed commodity economy, the market scope and depicted object of the more expanded.The there markets are interrelated meanings. Firstly, there is the sum of commodity producers and consumers of goods of frugal relations between the convergences. Second, there is a demand for buying power third is the reality of customers and potential customers. With the festering of m arket economy, all kinds of markets are in development.With the social interaction, the market is not necessarily lawful sites and locations.Social division of labor and commodity market is the inevitable harvest-tide of economic development.Meanwhile, the market in its development and strengthening of the process, nevertheless likewise promotes the social division of labor and the further development of commodity economy.mart through information feedback, a direct impact on people what is produced, the production number, and time to market, product sales, etc. join the process of economic development, commodity production, supply, marketing parties, for the production, supply, marketing parties exchange place, exchangetime and other exchange, in order to achieve commodity producers, operators and consumers to their own economic interests. (John, 1992). So accomplish a great deal of English education market. main(a) and secondary students to learn English before they can enter university students top out exams in English, they can not get places As for the serving staff, English is a compulsory subject title examinations, title means more m superstary, sub-house those who want to study abroad, noa certain TOEFL, IELTS (English assessment test), you can not apply for a scholarship want foreign companies perplex shited a seat, not English to work hard to find, even if frame, but also the lack of promotion opportunities. The bulky demand to learn from the huge crowd, rough statistics, the number of people training English, just the middle and high school students, has nearly 190 million. According to the Chinese Ministry of Education Statistics 2005, the national junior high school students have 65144000, in the national ripened high school students to reach 3990.09 million. Diyazhao4.3 To critically appraise the advantages and disadvantages of English Language in marketing.We all lie with there are many advantages of knowledge English, The usefulne ss of English far more than meet the test and get a degree that simple. While the United Nations has six official languages, although Chinese is the worlds most widely spoken language, but now, the worlds most widely used language is English.Chinas largest population, China wants to develop to isolation from the world, to get the world to gain a foothold in the world to seek their own way, will not be the most widely used language that how about other areas?On second thoughts, we as individuals want to break a world in the world, confined to the domestic is not enough, although the history of private policy has become in the past, but it always warned us to learn foreign advanced science andtechnology to develop their own to break their ownHowever, if the language does not pass even the most basic communication can not do, how can we talk about learning and development? moreover few people would think of a disadvantage.Because people want to learn English, they all feel is a good thing, but people often do not think learning English will let another language extinction.The people of the world unaccompanied know 2 languages come from china Cantonese and Mandarin.But China has more than the 2 languages.For example Hakka.I am from China, I am also a Hakka, but since I live in a big city in the city led me to only speak Cantonese and Mandarin. But I spoke Hakka when I was small.However, due to speak Cantonese and Mandarin for a long time resulted in the Hakka dialect pronunciation of my non-standard, and sometimes my family does not understand what I said when I use Hakka.If this continues, the Hakka may be extinct.This is just an example.Chapter 5 ConclusionIn this research, it enhanced English as a global language, It seems to capture the other indices between the worlds languages, roughly on the number of economic factors or the basis of mother tongue, do not convey the relative relationship between things. The awareness of the importance of language learni ng is point of departure. Taking into account economic factors has been discussed, including severe language products and open world trade index. Taking into account the human development are index of different countries. It combines education with literacy and the quality of life measures were generated. At least it is not some standard, but far ahead of all other languages, including Chinese.Chapter 6 RecommendationsAccording to my research, this research shows why English as an international language. From this research, we should firstly, we should know why we learn English. Because if you do not have an objective, and you cannot learn English very well. Finally, you need to know why English as an international language, not your mother language, it will let you know how different from English with your language that you can learn English harder.Chapter 7 Self EvaluationFirst four weeksThis is the first time I have ever done research and I had little confidence, so initially I h ad trouble finding a topic or expressing a particular idea. I started to get some ideas from the internet. Luckily, I found an idea about English language as an international language from the internet. Although I had an idea, I did not know what I could do next. past I talked with my teacher and she helped me to finish the research proposal. When I finished the proposal, I did not know how to research the information from books or websites, because there is so much information for me to choose from, I did not know which one is best for my research. Due to having classes taught about how to take notes and avoid plagiarism, I know now how to do these things and I am learning how to look for information.mid(prenominal) courseMidway through this research I had many problems. Firstly, I had toothache and I could not focus on my research and lost(p) some classes, sometime I got so lost that I did not know what I can do next. I also found some books from library, but I did not know how to connect them with my research. Luckily, my tutor has told me how to connect them. I think my classmates are faster than me, so I need to catch up with themFinal evaluationThis is the final research, from this research I learned how to compile a full research and how to write references. And I knew there have a software can assure you essay is copy or not that I very upset about this software. Then I checked my work again and again. Because I have an essay is for business that I have a dope of work to do. So sometime felt tired. However, I am a student, learning is student task.

Theories of the Totemism Belief System

Theories of the Totemism Belief SystemAnthropology is crucial for d let the stairsstanding the contemporary knowledge domain. Anthropology offers two affaires to think ab bug out and things to think with. Anthropologists would be interested in Totemism because they bring great deal throughout the world, investigating their history, conduct, how they adapt to different environments, communicate and mixed bagize with each other, along with examining the biological characteristics that make us hu cosmos, our physiology, genetic make-up, nutritionary history and evolution along with neighborly features equivalent language, crazeure, politics, family and organized religion.Totemism is a touch sensation placement where serviceman atomic number 18 regardd to arouse kinship or a mystical blood with a spirit-being much(prenominal) as an animal or put. The totem is thought to interact with a mootn kin group or mortal and serve as their token or symbol. Totemism has b een depict as a cluster of traits in religious and in the favorable geological categoryation of populates (Encyclopaedia Britannica Online, 2013). Totemism inventoryates in populations whose traditional economies relied on hunting, gathering and mixed farming with the tension on rearing cattle. Totemism is a multifaceted mickle of topics and panaches of behaviour built on a worldview drawn from nature. in that location argon ideological, mystical, emotional, reverential, genealogic relationships of societal groups or peculiar(prenominal) soulfulnesss with animal or natural intentionives, the totem. There is a inequality between group and individual Totemism although they sh are a few basic characteristics they happen with different emphasis and in peculiar(a)ised forms. Gener all in ally societies have particular names and emblems to relate to the totem, and those it sponsors engage in differentiateial identification with the totem or exemplary integration to i t. unremarkably, in that location is a taboo against people cleanup spot, eating, or touching the totem.Individual Totemism is articulated in an intimate relationship of friendship, respect and valueion between a person and a particular species of animal the natural object can reach special antecedent to its owner. However, this relationship, in the case of the individual totem, begins and ends with the individual man, and is non, like the folk totem, transmitted by inheritance. An individual totem in America isUsually the first animal of which a youth dreams during the long and generally l wizardly(prenominal) fasts which American Indians observe at puberty. He kills the animal or damn of which he dreams, and henceforward wears its skin or feathers, or sonic part of them, as an amulet, especially on the war-path and in hunting (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2013)Individual totems among the Slave, lapin and Dogrib Indians will always be a carnivorous animal, and must non be skinned, eaten or killed. A man will always lead a photograph of his totem if they are unsuccessful in a furrow he will smoke to it and make a speech.Group Totemism is the to the highest degree widespread belief system. The totem is often an animal or plant that is prise by all members of the social group, because of a mystical or religious rite relationship between the group, the spirit which embodies the totem represents the bond of unity within the family or order. The group believe they are descended from a totem ancestor or that they and the totem are brothers. The totem can be viewed a group symbol and the shielder of all members of the group. The animal or plant totem is the object of a taboo, fairish as the individual totem it is forbidden to kill or eat the tabu animal. It is manageable for the totem symbol to be tattooed on the body, engraved on weapons or carved on totem poles. Males and females in some cultures have their own totem in time, typically Totemism is connected with clans or blood relatives. Marriage between members of the similar totemic clan is all in all forbidden. Group Totemism is usually associated with people in Africa, India, Oceania, unification America and some parts of South America.The first speculation on Totemism was conducted by McLennan (1869) who searched for the origins of totemism, he belied thatThe ancient nations came, in prehistoric times, through the totem stage, having animals and plants, and the celestial bodies conceived as animals, for gods before the anthropomorphic gods appeared (Lvi-Strauss, 1969, p. 18)Many scholars believed this conjecture and set out with the assumption that some example of UR-totemism has existed, and that its faint contours could be discerned behind the left-over totemic systems fragments of present day (ibid, 18). McLennans possibleness was criticised by Taylor (1899) who discarded the confusion of Totemism with saucer-eyed religion of animals and plants, and viewed Totemism as a relationship between wizard figure of animal and a clan except he did argue with the idea that totems were the basis of religion.Franz Boas (1916) research was based on North West American Indians and he found a club employing a visual form of Totemism in the form of totem poles. The totem pole was do up of mystical characters from the kindreds hereditary past. Item were chosen from nature and used for cultural purposes. Totem poles functi onenessd as an emblem of a clan or family, showing its unity and the rights which each clan were entitled to, and as a reminder of each clans link to a spirit ancestor. Totems were also a form of communication as tribes had no written language, so the totem poles were used to tell their stories, legends and events. Totems could non only be for clans they could also be individual however, only the roughly affluent tribe members could afford to have their own totem carved. Boas (1916) argued against a psychological or histori c origin of totemism because its characters could be linked with individuals, and are in every social organisation, appearing in various cultural contexts and would not be possible to fit all totemtistic phenomena into one classification.The first complete work on totemism was conducted by Sir James Frazer (1919) who developed several theories in regard to the origin of totemism. The first theory suggested that men have totems because they expect benefits from themThe connection between a man and his totem is mutually beneficent the totem protects the man, and the man shows his respect for the totem in various ways, by not killing it if it be an animal, and not natural or gathering it if it be a plant (Frazer, 1887, p. 3)His second theory was that totemism was a system of magic intended to provide a render of food for someone else (Hopkins, 1918, p. 153), this was disregarded in place his final theory which was more radical than the others and based on the accompaniment thatSome savages believe their offspring comes not from intercourse between man and woman, but from the pot likker of animals or quasi-animals seen by the woman or from the food she eats. They think that the inspirit which thus give-up the ghost their children are really the animals they have seen or whose trope they have eaten before conceiving (ibid, p. 153)This is what Frazer called the conceptional theory.Totemism at this point had come under attack from American anthropologist Goldenweiser (1910) who began by listing five key characteristics believed to be symptomatic of totemism, an exogamous clan ( people marry outside of their own social group), the name of the clan derived from the totem, a religious attitude toward the totem as a friend or brother or protector, taboos or restrictions against the killing and eating of the totem, a belief in the decent from the totem (ibid, p. 182-83). Goldenweiser (1910) concluded that separately of these traits..displays more or little a stri king independence in its distribution and most of them can be shown to be widely-spread ethnic phenomena, respective(a) in origin not necessarily coordinated in development, and displaying a rich variability of psychological make-up (ibid, p.266)Although not willing to give up the idea totally he proposed an alternative definition of totemism in terms of the association between definite social units and objects and symbols of emotional order (ibid, p. 275). Lowie (2009) was more radical arguing that totemism did not exist and for all smart and purpose was an invention of anthropologists.Durkheim in his book The Elementary Forms of Religious liveliness (1915) presented the most influential interpretation of religion from a functionalist perspective stating society was the soul of religion and was the foundation of all religious beliefs. Durkheim (1961) verbalize all societies divide the world into two categories the unutterable and the profane. Religion is centred on this piec e it is a unified system of beliefs and practices related to sacred things, things which are set apart and forbidden (Haralambos, 2001, p. 432). Thus to comprehend the voice of religion in society, the connection concerning sacred symbols and what they foreshortenify must be determined.Durkheim used the religion of Australian aborigines in order to explain his theory. Durkheim referred to their religion as totemism stating it was the most basic and simplest form of religion. Aboriginal civilisations were divided into numerous clans each having duties and obligations towards their members, one of which is exogamy, where members are not allowed to marry within their clan. Each clan has a totem usually that of an animal or plant which is the emblem of the clan, a sign where each clan can distinguish itself from the others. The totem is the most sacred object in aborigine ritual. The totem is the outward and visible form of the totemic principle of god (ibid, p. 432). Durkheim argued if the totem is the symbol of god and society, therefore society and god are one. So people who are worshipping god are in fact worshipping society therefore, society is the real object of religious worship. Sacred things are overturned superior in dignity and power to the profane and particularly to man, thus, in relation to sacred things individuals are inferior and dependent (p.432).Durkheim express crude man came to view society as something sacred because he is totally dependent on it. Furthermore, Durkheim argued the reason why society invents a sacred symbol like a totem is because it is easier for a person to visualise and demand his feelings of awe toward a symbol than towards so complex a thing as a clan (ibid, p.433). Durkheim believed in the collective conscience a set of shared values and moral beliefs, religion reinforces the collective conscience. The worship of society military groupens the values and moral beliefs that form the basis of social life. However, G oldenweiser (1910) saidThe appearance of Durkheims brilliant but unconvincing treatise on religion brings headquarters the fact that one of the phases of socio-religious thought, namely the problem of totemism, remains as fill up with vagueness and misunderstanding as ever (ibid, p.288)Boas (1916) aiming at Durkheim as much as Frazer, denied that cultural phenomena could be bought together into a unity (Lvi-Strauss, 1969, p. 79).British anthropologists were less ready to give up on the concept of totemism. Malinowski (1925) gives an uncomplicated compendium of totemism relating to the function it has in a prone society. Totemism plays a significant role in the ordering and control of nature by man (ibid, p. 22-23). The kind of mans attention in the totemic species shows also the kind of belief and cult to be there expected. Since it is the craving to control the species, dangerous, useful or edible, this desire must lead to a belief in special power over the species, affinity w ith it, a crude essence between man and beast or plant (Malinowski, 1954, p. 45). Totemism as a style of social organisation maintains the status quo in society while as the same time serving as mans interests in a much deeper wayFrom the survival point of view, it is vital that mans interest in the practically critical species should never abate, that his belief in his capacity to control them should give him strength and endurance in his pursuits and stimulate his observations and knowledge of the habits and natures of animals and plants (ibid, p. 46)A criticism of Malinowski is he is guilty of operating entirely within the world of nature and his theory leaves us to explain why totemism, if it responds to human needs is not linguistic universal (Leach, 1969, p. 130). Evans-Pritchard (1951) said, Malinowskis theoretical conclusions are no more than descriptions in more tweet language (p.95).Radcliffe- Brown (1929) explored totemism from a structural functionalist perspective h e did not attempt to understand totemism in terms of beliefs, but as a collection of practices that serve to uphold the solidarity and equilibrium of the social group. Radcliffe- Brown described totemism as that circumstance whereuponSociety is divided into groups and there is a special relation between each group and one or more classes of objects that are usually natural species of animals and plants but may occasionally be artificial objects or parts of an animal (Radcliffe-Brown 1965, p. 117).Radcliffe-Brown (1965) said totemic objects are objects which have been accorded ritual value (ibid, p. 123) and he argues thatAny object or event which has important effects upon the well-being (material or spiritual) of a society, or anything which stands for or represents any such object or event, tends to become an object of the ritual attitude (Radcliffe-Brown 1965, p. 129).Here, Radcliffe-Brown comes really near to the utilitarian theories offered by Frazer and Malinowski however this hypothesis does little to the general understanding of why particular plants and animal species have such a high ritual significance. In a further essay Radcliffe-Brown (1956) highlighted the significance of the conclusions about the relations between humans and animals. Moreover, after listening and examining stories told about animals by Australian aborigines, Radcliffe-Brown concluded they had one theme, and added the resemblances and differences of animal species are translated into terms of friendship and conflict, solidarity and opposition Radcliffe-Brown, 1958, p. 116). Overall concluding, the world of animal life is represented in terms of social relations similar to those of human society (Radcliffe-Brown, 1958, p.116). Radcliffe-Brown proposed the central terms in his form of totemism are opposition and integration adding Totemism stopped being a type of religion but was instead a mode of thought where nature had become an object of contemplation for the expression of so cio-cultural differences (Tremlett, 2008, p.47). Radcliffe-browns previous idea that objects become totems because they are of ritual interest to society can be glum around why are they not of ritual interest because they have been designated as totems? (ibid, p.130). Questions have been asked about the integrity of his studies because some anthropologists have incriminate him of appropriating other peoples research and passing it off as his own.The Australian anthropologist Elkin (1933) said there are many forms of totemism in Australia specificallyIndividual, sex, moiety, section, subsection, matrilineal and lineal social clans, localised cult clan and dream-totemism. Elkin denied the unity of totemism but desire to preserve its reality on the condition that he might delimitate it back to a multiplicity of types he say there is no protracted one totemism but many totemisms, each in itself a one irreducible whole (p.113).Elkin (1933) denied the unity in totemism as if he th ought it possible to preserve the reality of totemism on condition that it be reduced to a multiplicity of heterogeneous forms (Levi-Strauss, 1969, p. 35). For Elkin (1933) there is no longer one totemism but many totemisms, each in itself a single complex whole. Lvi-Strauss (1962a) says Elkin instead of helping to slay the hydra (of totemism) has dismembered it and made peace with the bits (ibid, p.66).Evans Pritchard in his book on Nuer religion (1956) regarded totemism as a symbolic formulation of intellectually constructed relationships, (Strauss, 1962. p. 27). He wanted to comprehend totemism in terms of extensive Nuer Beliefs about Kwoth which stands for God or Spirit there were two manifestations of spirit, higher and lower, with the totemic spirit being the spirit of the below. Evans Pritchard no remand that Nuer totems were not symbols of linages, because some linages had none and other linages shared the same totem but did not otherwise acknowledge kinship with each-other . Nor did the totems signify Spirit as such, but rather the connection between God and a specific linage. So, such a study fixed totemism within the religious beliefs and practices of a particular society.Levi-Strauss was very critical of the reality of totemism for him the totemic illusion is the proceeds of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century effort by scientists to relegate the primitive outside the realm of culture (Leach, 1962, p. 127) because they wanted to protect the Victorian world-view by maintaining the Christian distinction between man and nature, thus, by failing to recognise the similarities between Western and primitive codes, scholars created false taxonomies and groggy the universal logic behind all so-called totemic phenomena (ibid, p. 127). Levi-Strauss was excite by Radcliffe-Brown, whose analyses he attempted to expand upon. Lvi-Strauss was the leading schoolman in contemporary structuralism believing human minds have indisputable universal chara cteristics which originate in the common feature of the homo-sapiens brain (Haralambos, 2001, p. 910). These common mental structures lead people everywhere to think similarly disregardless of their society or cultural background. Lvi-Strauss developed a system to show the abstract divisions that he adage in totemism as a phenomenon in human nature. His system was implemented in a table of oppositions or mutual relationships. The basic relationship was between the binary opposites such as nature and culture. On one side there were in nature certain realities such as species of animal, or plants and specific animals and plants. On the other side, there was in culture various groups and individuals who identify themselves with particular species or with specific animal and plants. Lvi-Strauss (1962a) noticed four types of relationship between nature and culture within totemismA species of animal or plant determine with a certain group a species determine with an individual and fina lly a particular animal or plant identified with a group of animal or plant identified with an individual, a particular animal or plant (p.18).Lvi-Strauss (1969) stated each of these four groupings correspond to the phenomena that are to be seen in one people to another (ibid. 84). For the first grouping he suggested the Australians, for whom natural entities are linked with cultural groups (p.84) the second grouping was the individual totemism of North American Indians where an individual is linked with a species of nature (p.84). The third grouping the Mota people from the Bank Irelands of Melanesia named a child is thought to be the incarnation of a specific animal, plant or creature which was found and eaten by the make when she first found out she was pregnant(p.84). The final groupings were from Polynesia or Africa where fixed individual animals formed the groups support and worshbluefrost13ip (p.84). In conclusion Lvi-Strauss stated the difference between the classes of man and animal serves as the conceptual basis for social differences. Thus, for Lvi-Strauss totemism is an illusion and a logic that classifies- a post hoc commentary in which the structure of social relations is projected onto the natural phenomena, not taken from it.In conclusion, totemism is a belief system where the traits in the social organisation of people are believed to have kinship or a mystical relationship with a spirit-being such as an animal or plant which serves as the group or individuals emblem or symbol. As anthropology tries to understand different cultures and provides knowledge about cultural variation in the world through details studies anthropologist would find totemism an interesting topic which has been prove by the number of studies which have been discussed. The first study on totemism was undertaken my McLennan in (1889) who explored the origin of totemism. Boas (1916) studied American Indians and their totem poles, concluding the totem poles functioned as the emblem of the clan showing unity and the rights each clan was entitled to. Frazer (1919) gave the first all-embracing work on totemism he came up with three theories the final of which saw the origin of totemism as an interpretation of the conception and birth of children a belief he called conceptionalism. Durkheim (1915) hoped to discover a pure religion in a very ancient form and claimed to see the origin of religion in totemism. In 1925 Malinowski explored totemism as a function in a given society. Radcliffe-Brown (1929) researched from a structural functionalist perspective explored how totemism upheld the solidarity of the social group. Elkin (1933) explored numerous forms of totemism. Evans-Pritchard (1956) explored Nuer religion and the symbolic nature of totemism. The final theory discussed on totemism was by Levi-Strauss (1962a/1969) who explored totemism from a structuralist perspective. He gave the most incisive critique of totemism by denying its reality stating t otemism is an illusion. Investigations of totemism has decline in recent times, those which have been undertaken have moved away from its universality toward explorations which consider totem structures in a more precise context.